SECTION THREE: SCHOOL PHILOSOPHY AND APPROACH
The vast range of planning theory and practice provides a great variety
of knowledge and an even larger diversity of approaches to the profession.
In attempting the difficult task of capturing the unique philosophy of each
of the selected schools of planning, this section analyzes various components
of their educational approach including: mission statements; their perception
of the role of the planner; the values and attitudes embraced; and the relative
degree of applied planning practice. It is through a combination of these
four components of the schools that one can gain some insight into the educational
philosophy of each.
As with any analysis, there are several limiting factors. Firstly, the schools
are rarely explicit about their educational philosophy and values: a certain
degree of interpretation is required. Moreover, rather than attempting to
extrapolate the implied values out of the many course offerings at each
school, this section studies only the general text supplied in the promotional
information.
3.1 Mission Statements
Just as the planning profession is a difficult entity to define to the unfamiliar
colleague, so too is the theoretical flavour of each of the individual schools
of planning. The intent of this section is to provide insight into the mission
of each of the selected planning schools, to compare these mission statements
to the recent literature on the direction of planning education and to evaluate
the relative position of UBC.
Method of Evaluation
The difficulty of ascertaining the focus of the schools of planning is best
summarized by John Friedmann in his recent analysis of the core curriculum
of numerous institutions across North America (Friedmann, 1996). Friedmann
notes: What do the planning schools themselves have to say about their mission?
Most of them say little or nothing, leaving it to the student to figure
out why forty-plus percent of their course work is prescribed in the core
curriculum (Friedmann, 1996, p. 95). Indeed, while perusing information
provided by the schools, readers generally must synthesize their own conception
of the focus of planning education at each institution.
The following is a collection of statements which have been taken directly
from the materials provided by the schools of planning observed in this
study. It is important to note that only a minority of the schools were
forthright about their objectives and mission. Where no mission statement
or goal was clearly articulated, the values and perceptions of planning
which appeared to be the most salient are presented. These statements
are then evaluated on an individual basis by each of the five student participants
in this study to assess the extent to which they meet the criteria proposed
in the literature.
Selected Statements
This section presents the mission statements which are included in the text
of the promotional materials provided by each of the respective schools
of planning:
University of British Columbia
To advance the transition to sustainability through excellence
in integrated policy and planning research, professional education and community
service.
The Schools program is shaped by five critical challenges confronting both
students and practitioners of our profession. The primary challenge is to
give practical meaning to the concept of ecologically sustainable social
and economic development and to explore local and global paths towards achieving
it.
...Our second challenge is to bring new understanding to the interdependencies
among the many variables that effect the design and planning of the built
environment, the development and use of natural capital, and the creation
of wealth generally.
...A third challenge is to advance societys capacity for strategic thought
and action. What institutional arrangements can best assimilate our new
knowledge and implement responsive policies and plans?
...The fourth challenge facing planners is to increase their effectiveness
in working with diverse interests at the local level, in the communities
and regions where people live and work.
...A fifth challenge is to maintain professional standards in all circumstances.
University of Calgary
The Planning Program emphasizes the development of an understanding
of the complex phenomena of human settlements and the development of a range
of skills for professional practice. It embraces studies and research in
the dimensions of the city and the region, including urbanization at national,
provincial and regional levels. Ideological foundations, together with historical
and utopian conceptions of planning and city design are investigated. Contemporary
issues in planning and their relationships to the practices of architecture
and the ecological sciences are explored in lecture courses, studios, workshops
and projects.
University of California, Los Angeles
The field of urban planning, as a subject of graduate education
in the U.S., has grown from an original concern with training land-use planners
for city governments to developing professional skills in guiding complex
and interrelated processes of social, economic, cultural, environmental,
and political change at every scale, from the local to the global. As the
scope of planning has broadened, issues of social justice and attempts to
reduce persistent inequalities of opportunity based on race, gender, class,
ethnicity, place of residence, and other attributes have become more central.
We seek to prepare students for a wide variety of professional roles in
policy formulation and planning in the public domain. Our approach is consistent
with the belief that improvement in the quality of life, especially for
the most disadvantaged populations, cannot be designed and decided upon
from any central position in the government bureaucracy. Planners must instead
respond to multiple influences, multiple publics, and a wide range of institutional
structures, each of which may provide a point of entry for professional
work on urban and regional problems.
Cornell University
The program in regional science is designed to provide students
with (1) a thorough understanding of regional, interregional, location,
and conflict theory in the context of physical and policy spaces and in
the framework of existing economic, social, and political theories; and
(2) a mastery of formal techniques of analysis of urban, regional, and socio-economic
systems as they relate to public and private sector decision making.
Harvard University
The Department of Urban Planning and Design brings together
an international faculty of scholars and practitioners to address the complex
problems affecting our urban environment. In addition to physical design,
the curriculum stresses the legal, political, socio-cultural, and environmental
aspects of planning and design.
The degree programs prepare professionals for careers in the private and
public sectors. They emphasize the physical attributes of the man-made environment,
the forces that shape it, and the conceptualization and management of interventions
to improve the efficiency and quality of life in urban and larger-than-urban
areas. They stress the acquisition of the skills necessary to manage the
interplay between private and public actions that govern the dynamics of
land development; formulate and implement programs that give shape to spatial
patterns; and maintain and improve environmental quality.
Université Laval
Laménagement du territoire et le développement
régional, quelle que soit la dimension de lentité territoriale
considerée, doivent tenir compte dun ensemble de milieux dinfluence
(milieux humains, naturels, économiques) qui agissent sur lindividu
et déterminent en grande partie son comportent dans toutes les dimensions
de lêtre: sociale, intellectuelle, affective, spirituelle, culturelle.
Le programme ATDR a pour but de permettre à des spécialistes
de disciplines variées dassimiler les concepts, les objectifs, les
moyens daction et les méthodes de travail et de recherche des disciplines
voisines intervenant dans les champs dactivités considérés.
Il vise à donner à des étudiants de disciplines différentes
une vision globale et intégrée de lensemble des composantes
de la planification spatiale.
University of Manitoba
The Master of City Planning is a two-year combined academic
and professional program of study that is directed by four premises: Firstly,
and the focus of the program, is the fundamental concern for the built form
of the city and region, including the natural and social elements of the
environment. Secondly, a professional outlook. This is based on the belief
that students registering in the program do so with the expectation of making
their careers in planning or related fields. The program has an emphasis
on professional practice and responsibilities, and the skills necessary
to translate knowledge into effective action. Thirdly, planning is regarded
as a multi-dimensional and inter-disciplinary activity . The program explores
the links between muli-facted planning issues and seeks solutions that are
ecologically and technically appropriate, socially just and environmentally
sustainable. Fourthly, a valuing of scholarship. The program emphasizes
scholarship as constituting a fndamental and lasting value for a planning
career. Therefore, an emphasis is placed on fostering intellectual integrity
and clarity of thought and expression. The curriculum provides a thorough
grounding in historical and theoretical aspects of planning thought and
practice, including research methods, current social and political theory,
and contemporary urban and regional issues.
University of Maryland at College Park
The core curriculum emphasizes student understanding of the
political, institutional and social context in which professional planners
implement programs. Special strengths at the University of Maryland at College
Park (UMCP) include social policy, economic development, housing, land use/environmental
planning, and urban design.
McGill University
Today, urban planning can be described as a technical and
political process concerned with the welfare of people, control of the use
of land, design of the urban environment including transportation and communication
networks, and protection and enhancement of the natural environment.
The objective of the School is to produce qualified professional urban planners
for the public and private sectors...Upon completion of the two-year program
of studies, graduates are expected to have acquired basic planning skills,
a broad view of urban studies and a field of specialization.
Université de Montréal
(The mission statement of the Université de Montréal
is separated into the following specific objectives for each of their academic
streams.)
Cette option prépare laménagiste à ouvrer, au
sein déquipes multidisciplinaires, à lélaboration de
plans dinvestissement en équipements collectifs et à la pratique
de gestion des services urbains, tant à léchelle locale que
régionale. On y développe les études dimpact fiscal
et les modèles de prévision de lincidence de limplantation
et du fonctionnement des divers réseaux sur lutilisation du sol.
On y aborde aussi la privatisation des services urbains et la redéfinition
de léquité sociospatiale.
Cette option permet la formation durbanistes ayant une bonne connaissance
des méchanismes de transformation du cadre physique de la ville,
et une bonne compréhension de la morphologie urbaine et de lévolution
des courants de pensée en design urbain. Létudiant acquerra
une compétence dans lanalyse et lélaboration de projets urbains,
dans des contextes spécifiques à laménagement de secteurs
résidentiels, despaces publics et zones dactivités mixtes.
Cette option permet dapprofondir une instrumentation nouvelle, amorcée
par le biais des études dimpact environnemental, avec le développement
de méthodes danalyse et dindicateurs environmentaux. Enfin, elle
sintéresse à la gestion environnementale sous langle de la
prise de décision et de la gestion concertée, de la consultation
publique et de la gestion associative, mettant en évidence les perspectives
de développement viable, de santé urbaine, de qualité
du cadre de vie.
Cette option valorise lanalyse et lintégration des strategies dintervention
et de leurs impacts sur les communautés urbaines, au-delà
de la connaissance des marchés foncier et immoblier, des modes de
gestion et dévaluation de projets de développement de nouveaux
sites résidentiels ou de consolidation du tissu urbain. Elle rejoint
les concepts de développement viable et de collectivités durables,
appelant lattention sur lhabitat urbain plutôt que sur le logement.
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
It was founded in 1946 to demonstrate the practical application
of social science methods to problems of government and was the first planning
program in the nation with its principal university base in the social sciences
rather than in landscape design, architecture, or engineering. It has retained
and strengthened that social science legacy while expanding the extent and
breadth of its programs to include the full range of graduate planning and
research. The graduate instruction and research program today is concentrated
on three focus areas: economic development; housing, real estate, and community
development; and land use, transportation and environmental planning. Students
define programs of study within these three areas and may combine interests
in more than one area.
University of Oregon
The faculty of Community and Regional Planning Program places
particular emphasis on working together with students and community groups
on applied planning and public policy issues important to the people and
natural resource base of the Pacific Northwest. An important program objective
is to connect theory and practice of planning in learning situations that
allow students to develop planning skills and acquire planning experience
while helping to address local planning issues and opportunities. Planning
program goals are to provide professional education and training in current
practices, impart a basic understanding of community and regional development,
develop competence in theory and methods and stress creativity in the development
of alternative solutions to planning and public policy issues and opportunities.
Entering students should be prepared to become actively involved in and
committed to the resolution of important social, economic, environmental,
political and cultural issues.
Queens University
The mission of the School is to help promote healthy, efficient
and equitable human communities by educating professional planners and by
contributing to the development of a body of knowledge and its application
to real-life situations through research, professional practice and community
service. A professional ethos and commitment to link knowledge with action
distinguish SURP from other disciplines. The Schools goal is to blend high
traditions of scholarship with the problem solving perspective of professions.
Within this broad mission, the School has the following objectives:
To attain excellence in teaching and learning and to prepare students for
careers in urban and regional planning.
To promote research that not only generates new knowledge but also links
it with the professional practice and community service.
To engage in public policy discourse about urban growth, regional and rural
development, housing and land issues, environmental protection and provision
of community facilities and services both nationally and internationally.
University of Toronto
The welfare of societies, economies and the environment is
increasingly dependent on the unique perspective which members of the planning
profession bring to bear upon the worlds problems. The importance of planning
is now such that, at the University of Toronto, we are committed to attracting
the very best students to our Masters Program (M.Sc.Pl), and to giving them
the skills needed to excel in professional life from the beginning of their
careers.
Technical University of Nova Scotia
The primary task of the Department is the education of individuals
who intend to become professional planners. Planners are involved in a variety
of activities which ultimately shape the pattern of human settlements and
affect the quality of daily life. The character of a neighbourhood, the
traffic on the street, the amount of sunlight on the sidewalk, the availability
of services, the choice of places to live, the possibility for individual
expression - are all influenced by planning decisions. By drafting policy,
evaluating developments, regulating, managing, advising, advocating and
designing, planners participate in molding the world we live in.
The Department emphasizes practical research and student and faculty participation
in the planning profession. Effort is directed toward understanding and
contributing to areas of current professional interest such as community
revitalization, economic development and heritage conservation. This commitment
requires an understanding of the historical, social, political and economic
context which underlies any decision. It also requires an awareness of the
physical, tangible consequences of any proposal. (from Homepage)
University of Washington
To be effective, no program can be all things to all people.
Thus, by choice, the emphasis in urban design and planning at the University
of Washington is on the physical environment and its socio-economic and
political determinants. The programs are designed to encourage students
to develop both a general approach to planning and to conduct research and
concentrated studies in professional areas such as urban design, urban development
and housing, and land use planning.
University of Waterloo
The masters degree is directed to students who are interested
in research and perhaps intend to continue on to a Ph.D. The program stresses
both planning practice and research. Three areas of specialization are developed
in the School via courses and faculty research: physical/natural
(environmental planning, environmental and urban design, land use planning,
natural resources planning, including water resources management); socio-economic/human
(the social and economic settings in which planning takes place, small group
and inter-group processes, the process of formulating planning and development
strategies); and political/administrative (the institutional
settings in which planning takes place, the administration of planning in
various fields, the politics of planning, the legal and regulatory structures
of planning).
York University
The key to understanding the Facultys approach is its comprehensive
and dynamic perspective on environment. Environment is seen as the sum total
of interacting factors and circumstances that surround, influence, and direct
the growth and behaviour of individual beings, groups, species, communities
and organizations. For the Faculty, the overall objective of environmental
studies is to promote an appreciation of the complexity and diversity of
relationships within and among environmental systems, an understanding of
the processes of environmental change, and the search for more effective
means of managing human activities and the built environment.
The Faculty of Environmental Studies also provides an opportunity to integrate
planning issues with cultural issues, environmental thought and politics,
and social policy analysis, both in the North American context and through
established links with developing countries.
Analysis of Statements
In order to analyze these mission statements, it is first necessary to determine
some appropriate criteria. As explained in the introduction, we have chosen
to use criteria proposed by Friedmann (1996). In his analysis of planning
curriculum, John Friedmann states that certain concepts are integral to
all planning education and proposes that there are six socio-spatial processes
which intersect to produce the urban habitat. Friedmann writes:
Briefly, a socio-spatial process is one that takes place in space,
even as it acts upon this space, forming and transforming it. It thus refers
to specific social relations in both their temporal and spatial dimensions
that will affect our lives for good or ill, because they both maintain and
reconfigure the life spaces we inhabit. Given this understanding,
every professional planner should have a solid grasp of the six macrosocial
processes that, interacting with each other, constitute and define the urban
habitat
(Friedmann, 1996, p. 96, emphasis added)
Each of the six processes are summarized as follows (they will be
referred to by the adjacent italicized terms for ease of comprehension)
:
urbanization processes (urbanization processes
):
These processes produce the form and structure of two-dimensional
space. They include such topics as migration and mobility, settlement patterns,
urban land values, suburbanization, the urbanization of the suburbs and
world city formation (Friedmann, 1996, p. 97).
regional (and interregional) economic growth and change processes
(economic processes ):
Friedmann notes that: The formation of urban space has primarily an economic
explanation which is best studied at the regional scale and in the context
of systems of urban-centered regions (Ibid., p. 97).
city-building processes (political processes)
:
In this instance, Friedmann is referring to the political economy
of building, decline, and rebuilding of city-building ensembles (Ibid.,
p. 97). For example, these processes affect the location of derelict districts
and the re-development of certain neighbourhoods. These processes evolve
from policy and action arising in the political sphere.
cultural differentiation and change (cultural processes
):
These processes are especially prevalent in high-immigration regions
and include such topics as spatial segmentation and culturally specific
forms of life among immigrant groups that give form to streetscapes and
neighbourhoods; the production of livelihood among immigrant groups in which
the roles of households, families, territorially based communities are often
central; inter-ethnic and race conflicts...[etc.] (Ibid., p. 97).
transformation of nature (environmental processes
):
Friedmann remarks that the transformation of nature has come to
be seen as one of the basic processes in the shaping of the urban habitat
(Ibid., p. 97) The enormous consumption of resources required to develop
and maintain human habitat have impacts on the natural environment which
cause substantial feedback into the process of city formation.
urban politics and empowerment (empowerment processes
):
John Friedmann defines these processes as the collective visible
hand that guides, prods, resists, and stakes out claims in the evolving
fortunes of the city and its region...It is the part of empowerment, particularly,
that centers on how disadvantaged groups, such as immigrants, African Americans,
women, gays and lesbians, the handicapped, and older citizens, achieve collective
action to improve their conditions of life (Ibid., p. 97). These processes
arise from policy and actions which evolve out of the grass roots.
It is on the basis of these six socio-spatial processes which underlay the
development of human space that the mission statements might be assessed.
This assessment is carried out in Table 3.1.1 where the mission statement
of the school is deemed to embrace the process when at least three of five
of our group members agree that it satisfies Friedmanns definition. An indication
of the robustness of these conclusions is given by considering the categories
where all five members are in agreement, as indicated by the number five.
Table 3.1.1: Comparison of Mission Statements & Sociospatial
Processes
When the mission statements are compared to Friedmanns sociospatial processes,
several points become evident. Firstly, none of the planning institutions
surveyed adequately address all of these processes in their mission statement.
In fact, 11% (2 of 18) of the schools of planning can be said to consider
two of the processes, 44% (8 of 18) discuss three processes, 39% (7 of 18)
discuss four processes and only 6% (1 of 18) allude to five. None include
all six. In addition, it should be noted that there are not any planning
schools which mention fewer than two of the processes. This information
is summarized in Table 3.1.2.
Table 3.1.2: Number of Sociospatial Processes Addressed by
Each School
Another issue that is relevant to this study is the sociospatial processes
that are being addressed most frequently and those that tend to be ignored.
The processes mentioned most often (in >70% of the sample) include urbanization
processes (72%) and environmental processes (78%). The sociospatial processes
that are frequently mentioned in the mission statements ( in >50% of
the sample) are economic (61%), political (67%) and empowerment processes(50%).
Finally, the processes that are seldom addressed (in <50% of the sample)
are cultural processes. This trend is clearly visible in Table 3.1.3.
Table 3.1.3: Number of Mission Statements Addressing Each
Sociospatial Process
Summary
The importance of a clear mission statement in guiding the academic direction
of a school of planning cannot be overstated. The vast majority of the schools
analyzed in this study did not express clear objectives and left it to the
reader to attempt to extract the institutions underlying philosophy. In
spite of these practical difficulties, several conclusions are evident from
this analysis:
Although Friedmann stresses the importance of the six socio-spatial processes
to planning education, approximately 96% of the schools surveyed effectively
addressed four or less of these processes. Only UBC embraced five out of
six and none of the schools could be said to have addressed all of the socio-spatial
processes.
In terms of which processes appeared most often in the mission statements,
urbanization processes and environmental processes were both addressed more
than seventy percent of the time. Economic, political, and empowerment processes
were mentioned in greater than fifty percent of the mission statements.
The processes which were consistently ignored in the mission statements
of the schools were cultural processes which only appeared in eleven percent
of the sample.
The implications for UBC are as follows:
UBC has a clear, concise mission statement which is greatly beneficial to
comprehending the schools philosophy. This has obvious benefits for students
who are trying to select a graduate school of planning as well as for those
attempting to give direction to the schools curriculum.
UBC is the only school of planning with a mission statement which addresses
five out of six of the socio-spatial processes which Friedmann states are
pertinent to planning education.
UBC is in-line with the other schools across North America in incorporating
urbanization processes, the transformation of nature, city-building processes,
regional economic growth and change and urban politics and empowerment into
its mission statement. As such, the current direction of academics at UBC
seems to reflect those of other large planning schools.
UBC should however, note the fact that the school does not include any reference
to cultural processes in its mission. While only two of the eighteen schools
in the survey did mention these processes, Friedmans assertion that the
processes are key to a complete graduate education in planning is valid.
3.2 Role of the Planner
Introduction
The role of the planner has been the subject of considerable debate which
is partly attributable to the ever changing realities in which planners
work, and the broad, multi-disciplinary nature of the profession. This overall
lack of definition of the role of the planner makes it difficult to set
planners apart from other urban professionals and therefore raises questions
as to the comparative advantage of having a planning education. Friedmann
(1996) discusses this quite extensively in The Core Curriculum in
Planning Revisited:
After 40 years, conceptions of planning and planners roles have undergone
major changes and revisions, as the profession adapted its self-understanding
to changing circumstances in the societal/historic context of its practice.
Both in the academy and in the market place, planners find themselves competing
neck to neck with professionals trained in other disciplines, such as policy
studies, public administration, law, ecology, engineering, geography, architecture,
landscape architecture, and applied economics. This poses a challenge to
planners to (re)define themselves in ways that will allow them to compete
successfully as urban professionals. (p. 89-90)
Further on, Friedmann concludes:
It is said that every crisis is also an opportunity, and the field
of planning has been in a state of permanent crisis almost since its inception.
In this it is not alone. Professional studies, interdisciplinary and constantly
torn between the conflicting demands of theory and practice, are notoriously
crisis-prone as they respond to rapidly changing patterns of need in the
society they are meant to serve. (p. 92)
Despite this situation, there is evidence of newly emerging and distinct
roles within the planning profession. These roles are more tied to the process
of planning which is recognized by some as inherently political - the role
of the planner as mediator or facilitator; the role of the planner in making
judgments about who participates, how goals are interpreted, who has access
to information; and the role of the planner in developing strategic responses/actions
to those judgments (Forester, 1986) - rather than the content of planning
practice which fails to distinguish planners from many other professionals.
This is consistent with a recent survey conducted by Friedmann and Kuester
(1994) which asked planning academics which planning roles they saw as becoming
most salient over the next decade. The most frequently cited roles were
(in order of frequency):
entrepreneurial planning (inventing solutions to new problems);
mobilizing community action (resistance and self-help);
mediation/negotiation;
creating situations for learning to learn;
planning in real time (trouble shooting);
urban design.
In their analysis, the authors conclude that the first three in the list
- entrepreneurial planning, mobilizing community action, and mediation/negotiation
- contain the crux of where planning is heading for two main reasons: the
growth of private consulting in planning and the politicization of planning
which has brought into focus the involvement of government bureaucracies,
political organizations, corporations and organized civil society in the
planning process (p.11).
These conclusions are supported by Forester (1986) when he calls for more
open recognition of the political nature of planning. This necessitates
a rethinking of the role of the planner away from a focus on the analysis
of projects - impacts, costs and benefits, alternatives and
more towards institutional processes , i) which planners have
to deal with all the time and ii) which call for inevitably political judgments
about desirable or undesirable participation, openness, levels of expertise
available to affected parties, representation, interpretation of goals,
and so on (p. 226).
More specifically, Forester states that:
The wholehearted confession and recognition that planners act politically
- affecting the intricate balance of relationships around them - will lead
to an increasing appreciation of the role of negotiation and mediation in
planning practice. Renewed attention to conflict, then, will lead planners
to learn essential theories and strategies of negotiation and mediation,
for these are activities that many planners are already involved with in
relatively ad-hoc and arbitrary ways. The limits of these skills, in turn,
are likely to lead us to examine issues of power and empowerment in a more
serious way than we have so far (p. 225).
With this in mind, the purpose of this section is to look at: how
planning schools define the role of the planner; the extent to which the
political nature of planning is discussed; and, the extent to which programs
reflect emerging trends in the role of the planner.
Method of Evaluation
In addition to a general analysis of statements relating to how the planning
schools define the role of the planner, the schools were compared on extent
to which they addressed the following new or emerging planning roles in
their programming or philosophy:
entrepreneurial planning (inventing solutions to new problems)
This is interpreted as the role of the planner in responding to
key issues or challenges by applying innovative new strategies to planning
practice. In the words of Forester, this is linked to a shift from the attempt
to discover recipes (what works) to the attempt to understand
and develop repertoires of strategies appropriate to varying
situations (p. 226).
mobilizing community action (resistance and self-help)
The role of the planner in organizing community groups to address
specific issues, implement plans/initiatives, or build coalitions.
mediation/negotiation
The role of the planner in working through diverse interests amongst
different stakeholders or conflicting interests. The role of the planner
as advocate on behalf of specific interests, negotiating solutions, resolving
conflicts, facilitating communication, etc.
creating situations for learning to learn
The role of the planner in facilitating access to information,
community participation, empowerment through knowledge, etc.
This list is adapted from the findings of Friedmann and Kuesters 1994 study.
The main roles were taken directly from the study; however, the interpretation
of what those roles mean is based on the judgment of the authors of this
study (as no further details were available). Although Friedmann and Kuester
only identify the first three as central to the future of planning roles,
the fourth role - creating situations for learning to learn - is included
in this analysis because it is related to empowerment and access to information
as discussed by Forester.
In addition to looking at the schools in relation to the roles outlined
above, any specific discussion on the part of the schools on the political
nature of planning (in relation to these roles or more generally) is noted.
Findings
A summary of findings is provided in Table 3.2.1 with more detailed discussion
following.
Table 3.2.1 - The Role of the Planner
The Role of the Planner
Washington, Manitoba and Montreal were the only schools which specifically
discussed the role of the planner. Washington states that the fundamental
role of the planner and urban designer is concerned with the publics well
being, with helping people imagine and define direction for their communities
and environments, frame alternatives, and develop and test means for achieving
objectives effectively and equitably. Manitoba is also fairly direct: Planners
primarily respond to the inevitability of socioeconomic and environmental
change by anticipating, facilitating and informing the necessary processes
of adjustment and innovation. Planners act as guides for society by helping
to keep it on an orderly track, or alternatively, by acting as agents for
its transformation. Montreal discusses traditional planning activities as
well as les nouvelles pratiques stating that Les nouvelles pratiques de
lurbaniste comprennent la mise au point de stratégies et lélaboration
doutils de protection du patrimoine architectural, de révitalization
de quartiers, de conservation de lenvironnment et de mise en valeur des
ressources dun milieu, lanalyse des impacts de projets urbains sur lenvironnment
naturel et bâti ainsi que sur la santé financière des
collectivités locales, et la mise sur pied de processes dinformation
et déducation, et lanimation dexercices de consultation publique.
All the other schools allude to the role of the planner in discussions of
what planning is, the types of jobs that planners work in and the kind of
work they do, the challenges facing planners, or the various fields of study
related to planning.
Emerging Planning Roles
(entrepreneurial planning, mobilizing community action, mediation/negotiation,
creating situations for learning to learn)
Twelve of the eighteen schools allude to one or more of the roles
listed above; however, only three of the schools (UBC, UCLA, Manitoba) make
reference to all three roles which contain the crux of where planning is
heading. Of the four roles considered, creating situations for learning
to learn was referred to most often (eight times) followed by entrepreneurial
planning and mediation/negotiation (seven times each), and mobilizing community
action (five). Details are provided below.
UBC (entrepreneurial planning, mediation/negotiation,
creating situations for learning to learn):
Entrepreneurial planning is alluded to in UBCs discussion of the
challenges facing planners when they discuss the need for a new generation
of planners dedicated to both understanding the issues and acting to resolve
them. In a similar vein, they state that planners must acquire a sense of
confident familiarity with diverse forms and sources of knowledge and develop
the facility to use that knowledge in integrated development planning. Another
challenge is to advance societys capacity for strategic thought and action
... structuring decision processes, and identifying the inevitable trade-offs
and long-term consequences inherent in all significant public policy choices.
In addition, they state that special types of competency are required of
the planner including communications ability and participatory leadership.
These statements are suggestive of roles in mobilizing community action,
mediation and negotiation, and creating situations for learning to learn.
Calgary (mediation/negotiation):
Calgary notes that in response to the increasing number
of private consulting firms, careers in planning are coming up in areas
such as public liaison/consulting, social and economic impact studies, environmental
planning and mediation.
UCLA (entrepreneurial planning, mobilizing community action,
mediation/negotiation, creating situations for learning to learn):
UCLA states that planners today are explicitly involved
with questions of political choice and must consider questions such as:
What qualities in society do we value most? What is fair? Whose interests
are to be served first? They go on to say:
Planners, as professionals, cannot claim the exclusive right to decide these
questions, but they have the responsibility to point out where these questions
arise in the process of planning, to see that they are addressed in the
public arena, to help people involved understand what is at stake, and to
offer proposals for practical improvements. This often involves taking the
position of advocacy, providing interpretations and critiques of the assumptions
and values underlying policies and plans and the articulations of the learning
process by which people come to discover what they want to happen. ... Planning
is thus no longer primarily devoted to preparing blueprints or master plans
for the future, but is moving into more intimate contact with initiation,
guidance, and evaluation of the relevant actions themselves.
These statements are indicative of all of the roles considered in this analysis
and most closely reflect Foresters conception of the future role of the
planner and its relationship to the politicization of planning, and therefore
to theories and strategies of negotiation and mediation, and to issues of
power and empowerment.
Cornell (negotiation/mediation):
Cornell makes reference to negotiation and mediation roles in regards
to the work of one professor, John Forester: focusing on planning as process,
Professor John Forester studies strategies available to planners with negotiating
or mediating roles in disputes concerning public-sector land use and development.
Harvard (entrepreneurial planning,
negotiation/mediation):
Harvard alludes to entrepreneurial planning when they state that
their curriculum emphasizes the conceptualization and management of interventions
to improve the efficiency and quality of life. They allude to negotiation/mediation
when they stress the acquisitions of skills necessary to manage the interplay
between private and public actions.
Manitoba (entrepreneurial planning,
mobilizing community action, mediation/negotiation, creating situations
for learning to learn):
Manitoba refers to all four of the roles considered in this analysis
in the following statements: Planners primarily respond to the inevitability
of socio-economic and environmental change by anticipating, facilitating
and informing the necessary processes of adjustment and innovation. ...
Planners can act as guides for society by helping to keep it on an orderly
track, or alternatively, by acting as agents for its transformation. They
also state that the dual mission of planning is underpinned by a common
concern for informed, equitable and visionary intervention, by the skillful
linking of appropriate knowledge to intended action, in the interest of
healthy, ecologically sustainable and livable communities.
Oregon (entrepreneurial planning):
Oregon alludes to entrepreneurial planning although they seem to
focus on policy rather than actual programs or projects: planners are responsible
for identifying and clarifying the nature and effect of planning problems,
formulating potential solutions to these problems, and assisting in the
implementation of alternative policies...
Montreal (creating situations for learning to learn)
Montreal discusses the creation of situations where individuals
can learn to learn in their section on les nouvelles practiques by accentuating
that ...la mise sur pied de processes dinformation et déducation,
et lanimation dexercices de consultation publique.
Queens (mobilizing community action,
creating situations for learning to learn):
Queens describes planning as a profession with a long tradition
of social service, and notes that involvement of citizens in community decisions
have been the hallmark of the profession. This is suggestive of the role
of the planner in creating situations for learning to learn. In addition,
although Queens does not refer specifically to mobilizing community action,
they do state that planning aims to integrate knowledge with action in the
pursuit of more just, efficient and sustainable cities. They also refer
to social planning as being explicitly advocative.
TUNS (entrepreneurial planning, creating
situations for learning to learn):
TUNS refers to creating situations for learning to learn and to
entrepreneurial planning in the following description of the range of professional
planning work: aspects of this work range from ... facilitating community
involvement in public decisions to ...promoting and launching new industries
in the most useful way possible.
Washington (entrepreneurial planning,
mobilizing community action, creating situations for learning to learn):
Washingtons statement on the role of the planner is suggestive
of entrepreneurial planning, mobilizing community action, and creating situations
for learning to learn: the fundamental role of the planner and urban designer
is concerned with the publics well being, with helping people imagine and
define direction for their communities and environments, frame alternatives,
and develop and test means for achieving objectives effectively and equitably.
In addition, Washington makes further reference to the role of the planner
in mobilizing community action and creating situations for learning to learn
when they state that planners require special knowledge and skills in order
to provide communities with an informed basis for coordinated action.
York (mediation/negotiation; creating situations for learning
to learn):
York does not generally make reference to any of the roles
of the planner except through a list of faculty interests which includes
action learning and communication and advocacy.
The Political Nature of Planning
Although many of the schools mention the importance of understanding
the political context of any given planning situation, only three of the
eighteen schools (UCLA, Cornell, McGill) discussed the political nature
of planning itself. UCLA states that planners today are explicitly involved
with questions of political choice and are faced with questions such as:
What qualities in society do we value most? What is fair? Whose interests
are to be served first? UCLA goes on to say that planners, as professionals,
cannot claim the exclusive right to decide these questions, but they have
the responsibility to point out where these questions arise in the process
of planning, to see that they are addressed in the public arena, to help
people involved understand what is at stake, and to offer proposals for
practical improvements, if not solutions. Cornell states that Aesthetic
questions of urban form lead to political, legal, and institutional questions
of land-use control and regulation. Sometimes public amenity is pitted against
private initiative, public participation against expert intervention. These
problems must be addressed in order to integrate community development with
other concerns. McGill describes planning as a technical and political process
concerned with the welfare of people, control and the use of land, design
of the urban environment ... and the protection and enhancement of the natural
environment.
Summary
Only three of the eighteen schools (Manitoba, Montreal and Washington) directly
discuss the role of the planner in their information packages. All others,
including UBC, discuss the role of the planner implicitly, often through
lists of the types of things that planners do, the manner in which they
should go about it, or the types of jobs in which planners work. This lack
of clear identity seems to pervade the planning profession in general (in
the words of Friedmann the field of planning has been in a state of permanent
crisis almost since its inception) and it is not entirely surprising that
this is reflected in the schools discussion of planning. As discussed in
the introduction, this may be partly related to the constantly changing
realities and challenges (and thus responses) facing planners, and the interdisciplinary
nature of the planning profession. Nonetheless, it is also a key issue worthy
of some attention and thought. Planning schools would do well to take a
lead role in this endeavor by (re)defining planning in a way that reflects
current challenges and distinguishes planning from other professions.
Of the three schools that did explicitly discuss the role of the planner,
Manitobas statement was most reflective of the emerging roles of the planner,
covering all four of those identified in this study. Washington covered
three of the four. Montreal only made reference to one of the emerging roles
(learning to learn) even though in their discussion they specifically list
nouvelles practique in comparison to activitiés traditionnelles.
Of the remaining nine schools which made reference to the emerging planning
roles, UBC and UCLA were the only schools which identified all four roles.
UCLAs discussion most closely reflected Foresters conception of the future
role of the planner and its relationship to the politicization of planning,
and therefore to theories and strategies of negotiation and mediation, and
to issues of power and empowerment. The remainder of the schools identified
two or less of the roles considered.
Of the four roles looked at, creating situations for learning to learn was
referred to most often (eight times) followed by entrepreneurial planning
and mediation/negotiation (seven times each), and mobilizing community action
(five times).
Only three of the schools (UCLA, Cornell and McGill) actually discuss the
increasingly political nature of planning. This is somewhat surprising given
that twelve refer to at least some of the emerging planning roles which
are closely related to the politicization of planning. Interestingly, McGill,
which does discuss the political nature of planning, does not refer to any
of the emerging roles. Cornell only refers specifically to mediation and
negotiation. UCLA discusses all four roles and the politicization
of planning. UBC and Manitoba refer to all four emerging roles but do not
refer to the politicization of planning.
Forester offers some cautionary insight into this situation:
Even today, planners have no acceptable way of admitting that they
have such political influence. ... The rub is this: if planners do have
multiple sources of influence but feel perpetually at risk in admitting
this, they doom themselves to walking on a lumpy rug. Undiscussable in the
profession, power and influence will remain difficult to learn about in
anything other than wholly idiosyncratic ways. This situation promises professional
tragedy. (p. 226)
This was written nearly a decade ago, yet it appears that planning
education has not fully responded. The schools allude to many roles related
to the politicization of planning but fail to openly discuss the political
nature of these roles. According to Forester, this may be hindering the
type of learning and understanding planners need to work effectively in
these roles.
Overall it is interesting that only four of the schools mention more than
two of the four planning roles which planning academics have identified
as becoming particularly salient over the next decade. UBC is clearly ahead
of most other schools in this regard (with the exception of UCLA); however,
a more direct discussion on the role of the planner including any relationships
between those roles and the political nature of planning would help clarify
key underpinnings of the program. As suggested by Forester, it may also
contribute to a rethinking of key issues of relevance to the planning profession
(and therefore the schools program) including ethics, and new approaches
to the study and practice of addressing key planning problems.
3.3 Values and Attitudes
Introduction
Planning has long been recognized as a value sensitive profession. As such,
it is not surprising that the researchers of last years student initiated
paper, Planning for the 21st Century, conclude that:
Any look into the goals of graduate planning education must ultimately
reflect on the knowledge, skills and attitudes imparted to students. In
order to contribute to the planning field graduates require:
1. a solid foundation of knowledge and understanding
in their chosen substantive field of planning practice;
2. a set of skills that will enable them to function
efficiently and effectively; and
3. a firmly established set of values and ethics that
shape their attitudes toward professional
practice [emphasis added]. (p.11)
With respect to the latter point, the researchers noted that:
Whether viewed from a physical design, social impact or environmental
perspective, planning is ultimately shaped by the attitudes of its practitioners.
These attitudes are reflected in the approaches taken to problems, in the
methods used for research, and in the style used for design. In short, all
planning activities involve some form of planners putting their values into
practice. (p.13)
Given the above, the researchers conclude that graduate education
in planning should involve identification and debate of underlying attitudes
and values which affect both the process and outcome of planning (p.13).
It follows that if this is a well recognized aspect of planning education,
planning schools should articulate the underlying values and attitudes which
shape their programs, approaches and content. Thus, the purpose of this
section is to provide an overview of the extent and manner in which the
selected schools articulate values and attitudes, and to compare UBC in
relation to these other schools.
Method of Evaluation
In order to evaluate the extent and manner in which the selected schools
articulate values and attitudes, two key questions were considered:
1. Are the schools explicit about values and attitudes?
2. What kinds of values and attitudes do they espouse?
The first question is addressed by examining self-evident statements on
values and attitudes made by the schools in their information packages (i.e.
are they explicit about the value sensitive nature of planning and any specific
values or attitudes espoused by the schools?).
The second question is addressed by looking at five examples of important
attitudes and/or value sensitive issues to the planning profession identified
by the Planning Accreditation Board (1992). These are:
1. Issues of equity, social justice, economic welfare, and efficiency
in the use of resources.
2. The role of government and citizen participation in a democratic society
and the balancing of individual and collective rights and interests.
3. Respect for diversity of views and ideologies.
4. The conservation of natural resources and of the significant cultural
heritages embedded in the built environment.
5. The ethics of professional practice and behaviour, including
the relationship to clients and the public, and the role of citizens in
democratic participation. (Planning Accreditation Board 1992)
from Planning for the 21st Century , p.13
Based on this list, the extent to which the various schools address these
issues is evaluated, noting any trends or differences amongst them, as well
as the overall relevance of the list to the issues and values espoused by
the schools.
Findings
Findings are summarized in Table 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1 - Values and Attitudes
Are the schools explicit about values and attitudes?
Overall, the schools can be grouped into three broad categories:
1. Those which are explicit about values and attitudes of importance to
the planning profession in general; and/or
2. Those which articulate and advocate certain values and attitudes of central
importance to their distinct philosophy, objectives, programming etc.; or
3. Those which may allude to values and attitudes, but are not explicit
about their importance to the planning profession in general, or to their
unique program.
1. Those which are explicit about values and attitudes of
importance to the planning profession in general.
Seven of the fifteen schools clearly discussed values and
attitudes in terms of their past and/or present importance to the planning
profession. This was generally covered in the introductory portion of the
program information. UBC did not make reference to values and
attitudes of importance to the planning profession in general. Examples
from schools which did make clear references are as follows.
Calgary refers to the Canadian Institute of Planners definition
of planning as involving a concern for health, aesthetics, equity and efficiency
and goes on to say that planning contributes to the conservation of natural
and cultural heritage, and promotes healthy communities and improvements
to the quality of life.
UCLA states: As the scope of planning has broadened over the
past several decades, attempts to reduce persistent inequalities of opportunity
based on race, gender, class, ethnicity, place of residence, and other attributes
have become more central. And so too has the evaluation and critical analysis
of public policies and decision making, as the distribution of costs and
benefits arising from public decision increasingly influences how well different
groups in society fare and who benefits from change.
UCLA goes on to say that as a result, planners today are faced
with value judgments such as: What qualities in society do we value most?
What is fair? Whose interests are to be served first? Manitoba
states that the mission of planning is underpinned by a common concern for
informed, equitable and visionary intervention, by the skillful linking
of appropriate knowledge to action, in the interest of healthy, ecologically
sustainable and livable communities and regions. Oregon notes
very generally that while applying analytical skills to both the community
and regional levels, the planner must also be capable of including subjective
judgments in the consideration of problems. Queens is more
specific: urban and regional planning is a profession with a long tradition
of social service. Concern for the rights of the poor, housing the homeless,
and the involvement of citizens in community decisions have been the hallmark
of this profession. Queens goes on to say that planning aims to integrate
knowledge with action in the pursuit of more just, efficient, and sustainable
cities. Toronto states that the welfare of societies, economies
and the environment is increasingly dependent on the unique perspective
which members of the planning profession bring to bear upon the worlds problems.
TUNS relates the values and attitudes of a significant planning
figure of the past to the way that planners think today: Adams cared about
the place where people lived, its safety, quality, visual appeal
and affordability, in total. ...That comprehensive view is indicative of
the way planners think. It is creativity that combines careful analysis
with an appreciation of people. Ironically, as a result, planners are often
accused of being in the way. But that is as it should be. They should be
in the way of narrow, self-interested or mediocre proposals and in the way
of pedestrian, routine solutions.
2. Those which articulate and advocate certain values and
attitudes of central importance to their distinct philosophy, objectives,
programming etc.
Nine out of the 18 schools selected did discuss values and
attitudes of importance to their specific program, but the extent of the
discussion or the emphasis placed on it varied considerably. UBC made a
direct reference to values and attitudes espoused by the school in describing
their alma mater: The School is the proud alma mater of over 650 professional
planners all over the world who look forward to your joining them in their
quest for ecological stability, economic security, greater social equity,
and an improved quality of life for all. Examples from other schools are
as follows.
UCLA was very explicit about the importance of values and attitudes
in relation to their programming, noting that the school has built distinctive
programs to promote cultural diversity, community activism, international
development, environmental quality, and social justice. Oregon
was also very explicit about attitudes and values they espoused, and their
expectations for incoming students in relation to these values: students
should be prepared to become actively involved in and committed to the resolution
of important social, economic, environmental, political and cultural issues.
Their programs support the integration of environmental integrity, social
and cultural equity, and appropriate economic approaches to community development.
A third of the schools incorporate values and attitudes into their discussion
more generally in terms of their mission or curriculum goals. For example,
Chapel Hills areas of concentration aim: to increase
the supply of affordable housing and revitalize urban neighbourhoods; broaden
real estate training to include public values; address the sustainable development
of the physical environment; and deal with complex spatial, economic, financial
and political problems. Manitoba states that their program
explores the link between multi-faceted planning issues and seeks solutions
that are ecologically and technically appropriate, socially just and environmentally
sustainable. Queens mission is to help promote healthy, efficient,
equitable human communities. They relate their values directly back to their
programming noting that public responsiveness to the needs of diverse groups
are values undergirding the academic and professional work in the school.
Washington believes that excellence in planning education is
not just getting the right subjects on the table. ... It is faculty pointing
out connections in terms of history, values, basic ways of approaching problems
and the roles that various substantive areas and specializations have within
this field. In addition, Laval notes that À cet égard,
le programme que nous offrons répond à une nécessité:
les problèmes de mise en valeur rationelle des territoires (de lespace)
et dutilisation optimale des ressources, exigent dêtre considérés
dans leur globalité avec le souci de promouvoir lutilisation intégrée
des ressources. Laval then goes on to state that [Le programme] vise à
donner à des étudiants de disciplines différentes une
vision globale et intégrée de lensemble des composantes de
la planification spatiale.
Calgary , Cornell , Harvard , Maryland
, Waterloo and York were significantly more limited
in their discussion of the way in which values and attitudes shape their
distinct programs. Calgary refers to investigations into just
and equitable modes of intervention in their program. Cornell
does not explicitly refer to values and attitudes at all, although the program
descriptions and the work of specific faculty emphasize certain values and
attitudes relating to issues of housing affordability, poverty, and historic
preservation. Harvard states that the Graduate School of Design
is dedicated to advancing human welfare through excellence in the designed
environment. Maryland does not explicitly discuss values and
attitudes in their material at all. Waterloo makes some reference
to equity issues, poverty, socio-economic impacts and cost effectiveness
under discussions on areas of specialization. York states that
their program was created to meet the demand for new and more appropriate
responses to environmental problems and issues: they do not, however, elaborate
on the nature of those problems and issues.
What kinds of values and attitudes do they espouse?
1. Issues of equity, social justice, economic welfare, and efficiency
in the use of resources.
This was the most highly discussed aspect of values and
attitudes by the schools overall. Almost all made reference to some aspect
of equity, social justice, economic welfare, and the efficient use of resources.
About half of the schools covered this category fairly comprehensively,
including UBC which refers to the quest for ecological sustainability,
economic security, greater social equity, and an improved quality of life
for all. Manitoba discusses a common concern for informed,
equitable, and visionary intervention by the skillful linking of appropriate
knowledge to intended action, in the interest of healthy, ecologically sustainable
and livable communities and regions. Oregon says that entering
students should be prepared to become actively involved in and committed
to the resolution of important social, economic, environmental, political,
and cultural issues. As mentioned earlier, Queens
is dedicated to the pursuit of more just, efficient, sustainable cities
and aims to promote healthy, efficient, equitable human communities. In
addition, course work and directed research in the Community and Regional
Development concentration focuses on improving the quality of life for people
in a region by helping to create stronger and more equitable economic and
social relations and a healthier physical environment. Toronto
refers generally to their concern for the welfare of societies, economies
and the environment and notes that the social planning specialization focuses
on looking at how governments and organizations can create more humane and
equitable societies. TUNS discusses a tradition of planning
in Halifax characterized by caring about the place where people live, its
safety, quality, visual appeal and affordability and notes that, overall,
the design of high quality, financially feasible, environmentally sound
development is the desired end.
Most of the remaining schools tended to focus on only one or two elements.
For example, Harvard states that the Graduate School of Design
is dedicated to advancing human welfare through excellence in the designed
environment. They also refer to an emphasis on the conceptualization and
management of intervention to improve the efficiency and quality of life
in urban and larger than urban areas. McGill is concerned with
the welfare of people and the protection and enhancement of the natural
environment; however, no mention is specifically made to equity or justice.
UCLA is concerned with issues of social justice and attempts
to reduce the persistent inequalities of opportunity based on race, gender,
class, ethnicity, place of residence... . The York School of
Environmental Studies focuses on appropriate and sustainable responses to
environmental problems and issues. Washington discusses planning
as a public service, concerned with the publics well being, and emphasizes
the importance of achieving objectives effectively and equitably. Waterloo
makes some reference to equity issues and cost effectiveness in discussions
on areas of specialization. Maryland makes a brief reference to equity concerns
in their discussion of the Land use and Environmental Policy specialization.
Chapel Hill and Cornell were the
only schools which made no specific reference to these values and attitudes.
2. The role of government and citizen participation in a democratic
society and the balancing of individual and collective rights and interests.
Very little was said on this topic from most of the schools.
Many referred to the importance of the political process or political context
in planning, but refrained from any specific discussions on democracy, public
participation, and individual vs. collective rights. UBC possibly
came the closest to addressing this issue, noting that in an era of deregulation
and privatization a key question that must be asked by planners is what
new tools for governance are needed to protect the public interest and enhance
the common pool assets upon which we all depend. Queens also
came close, stating that involvement of citizens in community decisions
have been the hallmark of this profession noting that planning should not
only be broadly participatory, but should help empower the poor and minorities.
UCLA and Toronto provide less direct but perhaps
more thoughtful comments on this topic. UCLA states: as the
scope of planning has broadened... so too has the evaluation and critical
analysis of public policies and decision making, as the distribution of
costs and benefits arising from public decisions increasingly influences
how well different groups in society fare and who benefits from change.
Toronto states: the Social Planning and Policy specialization
focuses on how governments and organizations attempt to create more humane
and equitable societies. It thus encompasses a wide range of topics from
the analysis of objectives, institutions, policies and decision making processes
to the modern welfare state to the methods for, and dilemmas of, planning
with people for specific services to meet specific needs.
Harvard and Washington made some reference to
this issue. Harvard stresses the acquisition of skills necessary
to manage the interplay between private and public actions but refers only
to the dynamics of land development in this context. Washington
talks about the participatory dimensions of planning and the role of planners
in helping people to imagine and define directions for their communities
and environments.
Nowhere do any of the schools discuss democracy per se.
3. Respect for diversity of views and ideologies.
Only a few of the schools discussed values or attitudes
on diversity, but those that did were quite explicit. UBC includes
this as one of the five key challenges confronting the profession: the fourth
challenge facing planners is to increase their effectiveness in working
with diverse interests at the local level, in the communities and regions
where people live and work. Queens states: public responsiveness
to the needs of diverse groups are values undergirding the academic and
professional work in the school. Manitoba is slightly less
explicit but still makes the point: the school makes a concerted effort
to link up with diverse organizations, places, and people. UCLA
states that: from its inception, Urban Planning has been committed to diversity
and strives for greater representation of underrepresented groups. Washington
states that the school accords a high priority to cultural diversity in
appointments, affiliations, and in admissions, as well as within the curriculum
itself.
4. The conservation of natural resources and of the significant
cultural heritages embedded in the built environment.
Almost all of the schools, including UBC made
some reference to the importance of conserving natural resources (Cornell
, Toronto and Washington being the exception),
generally in terms of sustainable development, protection and enhancement
of the natural environment, or maintaining the quality and integrity of
the natural environment. UBC was unique in identifying ecologically
sustainable social and economic development as the primary challenge facing
planners, and was the only school that referred to the natural environment
in terms of ecology.
Only a few of the schools made reference to the conservation of cultural
heritage in the built environment. UBC states clearly that
professional planning must better reflect both the biophysical stage upon
which we mount our socio-economic play and the lead roles performed by cultural
values and aesthetics in meeting the needs of the human spirit. UCLA
talks about the protection, rehabilitation, and reshaping of the built environment,
which presumably encompasses cultural artifacts/heritage embedded therein.
Chapel Hill simply makes a point of mentioning
that the school regularly offers at least one course in historic preservation.
Cornell has a special program in historic preservation planning.
Washington notes that their Planning and Design
Specialization addresses issues pertaining to the protection of cultural
resources. In describing the new role of the planner, Montreal
comments that Les nouvelles pratiques de lurbaniste comprennent la mise
au point de stratégies et lélaboration doutils de protection
du patrimoine architectural, de revitalisation de quartiers... The rest
of the schools made no reference to the conservation of cultural heritage
at all.
5. The ethics of professional practice and behaviour, including
the relationship to clients and the public, and the role of citizens in
democratic participation.
Only seven of the schools discuss professional ethics in
some way. Of these, only three of the schools (including UBC
) discuss overall professional integrity and competence, and also delve
further into the relationship between the planner, clients and the public,
and the role of citizens in democratic participation. UBC refers
to the importance of maintaining professional standards in all circumstances,
as well as the need to increase their effectiveness in working with diverse
interests at the local level. Queens discusses
a professional ethos and commitment to link knowledge with action, and,
more specifically, to link new knowledge with professional practice and
community service. Washington emphasizes professional rigor,
the dissemination of knowledge required for action, community service, and
ensuring that graduates have the necessary knowledge and skills of value
to the profession.
Three of the schools discuss the overall integrity/professional competence
required of the profession. Calgary refers to the need for
thoughtful professional practice. Manitoba emphasizes the importance
of professional practice, responsibilities, and intellectual integrity.
Waterloo states that both intellectual strength and professional
competence, including ethical maturity are needed in planning
UCLA does not specifically refer to overall professional integrity
and competence but does refer to the relationship between the planner and
the public: planners must respond to multiple influences, multiple publics,
and a wide range of institutional structures to improve the quality of life,
especially for the most disadvantaged groups.
None of the schools engage in a discussion that closely addresses the planners
relationship to clients and the public (possibly with the exception of UCLA
), and the role of citizens in democratic participation.
Summary
Overall, most schools discuss values and attitudes in some way in relation
to their specific programs although the extent of this discussion and the
emphasis placed on it varied considerably. In this regard, UBC, UCLA, and
Oregon were the most emphatic and comprehensive in their discussions. Seven
of the schools clearly discuss planning as a value sensitive profession
overall (Calgary, UCLA, Manitoba, Oregon, Queens, Toronto, TUNS and Washington).
Schools which made very little reference to values and attitudes were Cornell,
Harvard, Maryland, McGill, Waterloo and York. Of the five categories of
values and attitudes looked at, references to equity, social justice, economic
welfare, efficient use of resources and to conservation of natural resources
were by far the most common, being referred to by almost all of the schools
in some way. It is interesting to note that although the Planning Accreditation
Board combines conservation of natural resources and cultural heritage as
one area, only six of the schools made any reference to the conservation
of cultural heritage. Those that did were UBC, UCLA, Chapel Hill, Cornell,
Montreal and Washington.
In addition, very little was said on the role of government and citizen
participation in a democratic society and the balancing of individual and
collective rights and interests. Many schools referred to the importance
of understanding the political process or context in planning, but refrained
from any specific discussion of democracy, public participation and individual
versus collective rights. UBC and Queens came the closest to covering these
issues. None of the schools discussed democracy per se.
It is surprising that less than half of the schools discuss professional
ethics in some way and only three of the schools make reference to the relationship
to clients and the public and the role of citizens in democratic participation
in their discussions. These schools were UBC, Queens, Washington.
UBC was the only school which covered each of the five categories of values
and attitudes comprehensively. UCLA, Manitoba, Queens, and Washington discussed
values and attitudes which related to four of the five areas. Harvard, Laval,
and Montreal made reference to three (to varying degrees). The remainder
of the schools discussed two or less of the values and attitudes which the
Planning Accreditation Board cites as important to planning as a value sensitive
profession.
3.4 Applied Planning Practice
Introduction
Planning is increasingly defined as an action oriented profession, dedicated
to addressing social, economic, and ecological challenges of both local
and global consequence. Interestingly, the emphasis in planning on the practical
implementation of plans or actions is one of the few aspects of the planning
profession which is not subject to debate. In a discussion of the role of
the planner in Planning for the 21st Century, the authors concluded that:
While the debate continues, the only common theme is that there is a strong
orientation to the practical implementation and outcome of plans, rather
than simply to the rational making of plans (Friedmann and Kuester 1994)
(p.10). Many of the planning schools studied also emphasize the importance
of applied planning practice in an action oriented profession. For example,
UBC states that: adapting to global ecological change and economic rationalization
requires a new generation of planners who are dedicated both to understanding
the issues and acting to resolve them. UBC also refers to the importance
of advancing societys capacity for strategic thought and action and the
need to implement responsive policies and plans. Queens notes that in almost
all of their courses there is an emphasis on linking theory with practice
and action. Manitoba refers to the need for skillful linking of appropriate
knowledge to action. Although stated in slightly different ways, these comments
point to the critical issue of the application of planning in the real world,
for real people to effect local and global change.
In terms of planning education, the question remains: How are planning students
equipped for this task? According to Friedmann, planners must acquire specialized
knowledge comprised of six key dimensions. One of those dimensions is involvement
with clinical practice. In addition, Friedmann advocates education in planning
methods and approaches which are directly related to everyday practice (and
often assumed to fall outside of what is regarded as proper academic subject)
(p.100).
Overall, there are a number of reasons for incorporating applied planning
practice into graduate education. For many students, upon completion of
their degree, planning in the real world for real people is best achieved
by successfully obtaining a planning job or research consultancy (assuming
that you have the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes for professional
competency). Schools that offer opportunities for students to make contact
with professional planners and learn from their insight and experience,
to gain experience using real case studies in their courses and workshops,
and to work in a professional setting through an internship or co-op, help
equip students for this task, and therefore offer their students an advantage
over those schools which do not. Whether or not students should receive
credit for some of these opportunities (such as internships) is up for debate
(Friedmann, 1996); most would agree, however, that exposure to the practice
of planning is an important component of planning education.
Method of Evaluation
The following points were considered to evaluate the extent to which schools
incorporate opportunities for exposure to applied planning practice.
1. Involvement of outside professional planners in lectures and student
supervision.
2. Availability of mentorship program.
3. Availability of studio or workshop course based on real projects.
4. Availability of internship.
In addition, any special programs or links with outside planning agencies
or institutions were noted if they seemed to offer an exceptional opportunity
for students to gain experience or exposure to applied planning practice
or research, or to make contacts with planning professionals.
Generally speaking, the criteria were selected based on a common sense appreciation
of ways in which programs can expose students to applied planning practice.
The third criteria - availability of studio or workshop course - is specifically
advocated by Friedmann in the Core Curriculum in Planning Revisited (1996)
when he recommends that core courses be reorganized for greater pedagogical
effectiveness, in part, by placing greater reliance on case studies, intensive
workshops, and field trips that would allow for direct observation, data
collection, and reflection (p.101). The fourth criteria - availability of
an internship - is supported by the Planning Accreditation Board in their
recommendations to UBC to develop a proactive job placement service including
internships (Planning for the 21st Century, p.7).
Findings
The findings for the four criteria considered are summarized in Table 3.4.1
and discussed in more detail below.
Table 3.4.1 - Exposure to Applied Planning Practice and Professional
Planners
Involvement of outside professional planners in lectures and student
projects
Fifteen of the eighteen schools made a point of mentioning that
they involve outside professionals in lectures and student projects. This
ranged from inviting practicing professionals to give lectures and studio
critiques, or participate in workshops and special events, to offering entire
courses taught by outside professionals. Other particularly interesting
initiatives are described below.
UBC organizes dozens of lunch time guest lectures as part of the Brownbag
Seminars.
Chapel Hills Planning Student Organization (Planners Forum)
sponsors visiting speakers, arranges forums, workshops, and symposia, and
coordinates student participation in state and national planning. The Alumni
Association helps students and graduates in the development of their professional
careers.
Cornell has a Fridays at Noon lecture series which focuses on planning experiences,
strategies and analysis related to international political economy.
Manitobas Partners Program involves members of the business and cultural
community in the schools programs (including developing new initiatives
that benefit the community), activities and special events.
Maryland has a Technical Advisory Committee which includes outside professionals
working in planning practice. The Committee advises on the curriculum and
help students find employment. Maryland also hosts an annual lecture series
featuring distinguished urbanists and holds four Saturday seminars which
feature discussions with students, faculty, and practicing planners.
TUNS has a special planning module that focuses on topical issues and brings
together planners, students and the public in a cooperative enterprise between
the Atlantic Planners Institute, the Nova Scotia Department of Municipal
Affairs, and TUNS.
Waterloo has a unique Planner in Residence Program where a distinguished
planner spends one term or year at the school to give lectures and be available
for student consultation. In addition, the Pragma Council, comprised of
senior officers from the public, private and non-profit sectors, holds conferences
twice yearly at the school.
It is interesting to note that McGill mentions that a number of their courses
which are taught by outside professionals have been cut due to funding limitations.
Mentorship Program
UBC and Calgary are the only schools that offer a mentorship program
that links individual students with planning professionals for advice on
their program of study as well as job related inquiries.
Studio or Workshop Courses Based on Real Projects
All of the schools offer a studio or workshop course. While all
of the studios or workshops used real planning projects or issues as the
focus of study, a number of the schools actually had students working as
consultants for real clients, or involved community groups or planning agencies
in the identification of the planning project. For example, at McGill all
studio projects are based on real world practical problems and are often
done in collaboration with outside agencies, professionals and community
groups. At Queens, project courses are directly linked with the ongoing
work of public agencies or private developers. Oregons two terms of required
field based workshop has teams of students preparing reports for specific
communities.
At Maryland, the one semester studio has students working as a consultant
team for local Baltimore groups. At Chapel Hill workshop projects are defined
by actual clients in the public or private sectors.
Internship Program
Fourteen of the eighteen schools offer an internship which generally
involves a student working with a practicing professional in a planning
office on a project of benefit to both the host organization and the students
program of study. These included UBC, Calgary, UCLA, Chapel Hill, Laval,
Manitoba, Maryland, McGill, Montreal, Oregon, Toronto, TUNS, Washington,
and York. Internships may be paid or unpaid and range in intensity and duration.
For example, some schools expect students to do a 14 week full-time paid
summer internship (TUNS) while others have internships lasting for only
6 weeks (Manitoba). In many cases it is unclear whether or not internships
are completed on a full or part-time basis (i.e. is the student working
in a planning office five days a week for six weeks or just one day a week
for six weeks?). When completing internships at UBC, students are generally
expected to spend at least one day a week over a period of thirteen weeks
working at their host organization.
Special programs or links with planning agencies or institutions
Virtually all of the schools made reference to links with planning
agencies, institutions, or organizations outside of their programs; however,
a number of the schools appear to be particularly well connected, offering
their students some unique opportunities for research or field work, and
for making contacts with outside agencies. These are summarized below:
UBC has a number of research centres/programs with opportunities for student
participation. The Centre for Human Settlements (CHS) is designated as a
Centre for Excellence in International Planning by the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) and has links with five partner institutions in
Asia. Through CHS, students have opportunities to be involved in research
projects, participate in student exchanges with the five partner institutions,
and to engage in field work abroad. Other centres at UBC which offer students
opportunities for research and community outreach include: the Disaster
Preparedness Resource Centre(operated from CHS); the Ecological Risk Management
Project; and the Institute for Resources and Environment. Through UBCs Professional
Programs, students have the opportunity to plan and organize conferences
and events, and participate in the Community and Professional Programs courses
and seminars by attending, presenting, volunteering and preparing background
papers.
UCLA claims to be one of the top research universities in the country, offering
planning students opportunities in other departments, research centres and
special programs within the university. These include: the Lewis Centre
for Regional Policy Studies; the Institute of Transportation Studies; the
Community Scholars Program; the Community Outreach Partnership Centre; and
the Centre for North American Integration and Development.
Chapel Hill is part of a Research Triangle which links other nearby universities
with corporate and government research facilities. In addition, faculty
at Chapel Hill have links with the Interdisciplinary Institute for Urban
and Regional Studies at the Vienna University of Economics and Business
which includes a student exchange semester. There are also opportunities
for students to be involved in research and planning practice through the
Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, the Institute for Environmental Studies,
the Institute for Economic Development, the Carolina Population Centre,
and the Institute for Research in Social Science. Finally, students publish
a nationally recognized Journal, Carolina Planning, twice yearly.
Cornell has a number of institutes and centres for research: the Centre
for Environmental Research; the Cornell Institute for Social and Economic
Research; the Africana Studies and Research Centre; and the Centre for International
Studies.
Harvard has a number of institutes, centres or programs: the JFK School
of Government; the Taubman Centre for State and Local Government; the Taubman
Joint Centre for Housing Studies; and the Unit for Housing and Urbanization.
The School also publishes student design work in a publication called Studio
Works 4.
At Manitoba, working relationships are maintained with MACIP, the City of
Winnipeg, agencies of the Provincial Government, the Institute of Urban
Studies at the University of Winnipeg, the Rural Development Institute at
Brandon University, the Centre for Transportation Studies at the University
of Winnipeg, and many community organizations in the Winnipeg area. They
have recently developed three teaching units which all have active research,
teaching and service programs. These include Housing Studies, Research and
Development, the Computer Aided Design Laboratory, and the Canadian Institute
of Barrier Free Design. Another program currently being developed is the
Planning and Design of Sustainable Human Environments.
McGill makes special reference to their active research partnerships with
other universities including a number of international associations such
as the University of West Indies. The school is also a member of Urbanization
and Development, which includes INRS Urbanization, UQAM and the University
of Montreal, and they receive CIDA funding for research through the Montreal
Interuniversity Group. They note that all research endeavors involve students
and most funding goes toward student support. Much of the research is done
collaboratively with people from other universities and most is action oriented.
Oregon has a number of opportunities for students to acquire planning experience
while helping to address local planning issues. These include the Resource
Assistance for Rural Environments Grant where 20 students live and work
for nine months in rural communities, and the Micronesia and South Pacific
Program where 12 to 25 students provide community planning assistance to
island governments and institutions. Opportunities are also available through
the Institute for a Sustainable Environment and the Program for the Advancement
of Sustainable Communities.
Toronto offers students opportunities through their Centre for Urban and
Community Studies and the Institute for Environmental Studies. In addition,
the planning program edits and publishes Papers on Planning and Design.
TUNSs Cities and Environment Unit aims to work with communities in examining
their challenges and opportunities and in developing strategies and designs
to address them. The school is also working on a five year CIDA funded project
in Brazil assisting a university establish a graduate planning program,
providing assistance to communities in developing resources, and participating
in research projects. The Cities and Environment Unit and the CIDA project
provide students with opportunities for research and employment.
Waterloo supports a unique initiative where students are invited to Ottawa
annually to meet with public agencies and private companies to discuss planning
issues. During the trip, students participate in a career development seminar.
Yorks special programs or research initiatives include: the Canadian University
Consortium, the Asian Institute of Technology Partnership Program; and the
University Consortium on the Environment Indonesia Project. Students at
York also publish Undercurrents, a journal of environmental studies.
Summary
Virtually all of the schools (sixteen) involve outside professionals is
lectures, events and student work. All of the schools offer studio or workshop
courses although some are structured more as real planning consultancies
with students working in teams for actual clients (McGill, Queens, Oregon,
Maryland, Chapel Hill) than others. Fourteen of the schools (including UBC)
offer an internship. UBC and Calgary were the only programs that offer mentorship
programs.
Overall, UBC stands out from the other schools as the only program which
offers opportunities for students to gain exposure to applied planning practice
in each of the four categories. Nonetheless, a number of the schools have
unique programs or initiatives which may be of interest to UBC. These include:
Chapel Hills Planners Forum; Manitobas Partners Program; Marylands Technical
Advisory Committee; TUNSs special planning module; and, Waterloos Planner
in Residence Program.
All of the schools made some reference to special programs (centres, institutes
associated with the school) or links with planning agencies, institutions
or organizations outside of their programs; however, a number of schools
appear to be particularly well connected, offering their students unique
opportunities for research or field work, and for making contacts with outside
agencies. These include: UBC, UCLA, Chapel Hill, Cornell, Harvard, Manitoba,
McGill, Oregon, Toronto, TUNS, Waterloo, and York. In addition, Toronto,
Chapel Hill, and Harvard all publish well recognized journals featuring
student work.
Conclusions
After reviewing the philosophy and educational approach of the study sample
of planning schools, several conclusions are evident:
Mission Statements
Although Friedmann stresses the importance of the six socio-spatial processes
to planning education, approximately 96% of the schools surveyed effectively
addressed four or less of these processes.
Urbanization processes and the transformation of nature were addressed in
most of the missions statements while regional economic growth and change,
city-building processes and urban politics and empowerment were addressed
by close to half of the schools. The one process which was consistently
ignored in the mission statements of the schools was cultural differentiation
and change which only appeared in eleven percent of the sample.
UBC has a clear, concise mission statement which is greatly beneficial to
comprehending the schools philosophy. This has obvious benefits for students
who are trying to select a graduate school of planning as well as for those
attempting to give direction to the schools curriculum.
UBC is the only school of planning with a mission statement which addresses
five out of six of the socio-spatial processes which Friedmann states are
pertinent to planning education.
UBC is in-line with the other schools across North America in incorporating
urbanization processes, the transformation of nature, city-building processes,
regional economic growth and change and urban politics and empowerment into
its mission statement. As such, the current direction of academics at UBC
seems to reflect those of other large planning schools.
UBC should however, note the fact that the school does not include any reference
to cultural differentiation and change in its mission. While only two of
the eighteen schools in the survey did mention this process, Friedmans assertion
that the process is key to a complete graduate education in planning is
valid.
Role of the Planner
Only three of the eighteen schools (Manitoba, Montreal and Washington) directly
discuss the role of the planner in their information packages. All others,
including SCARP, discuss the role of the planner implicitly, often through
lists of the types of things that planners do, the manner in which they
should go about it, or the types of jobs that planners work in.
Of the three schools that did explicitly discuss the role of the planner,
Manitobas statement was most reflective of the emerging roles of the planner,
covering all four of those identified in this study. Washington covered
three of the four. Montreal only made reference to one of the emerging roles
(learning to learn) even though in their discussion they specifically list
nouvelles practique in comparison to activitiés traditionnelles.
Of the remaining nine schools which made reference to the emerging planning
roles, UBC and UCLA were the only schools which identified all four roles.
The remainder identified two or less. Of the four roles looked at, creating
situations for learning to learn was referred to most often (eight times)
followed by entrepreneurial planning and mediation/negotiation (seven times
each), and mobilizing community action (five times).
Only three of the schools (UCLA, Cornell and McGill) actually discuss the
increasingly political nature of planning. This is somewhat surprising given
that twelve refer to at least some of the emerging planning roles which
are closely related to the politicization of planning. Interestingly, McGill,
which does discuss the political nature of planning, does not refer to any
of the emerging roles. Cornell only refers specifically to mediation and
negotiation. UCLA discusses all four roles and the politicization
of planning. UBC and Manitoba refer to all four emerging roles but do not
refer to the politicization of planning.
Overall it is interesting that only four of the schools mention more than
two of the four planning roles which planning academics have identified
as becoming particularly salient over the next decade. UBC is clearly ahead
of most other schools in this regard (with the exception of UCLA); however,
a more direct discussion on the role of the planner including any relationships
between those roles and the political nature of planning would help clarify
key underpinnings of the program.
Values and Attitudes
Overall, most schools discuss values and attitudes in some way in relation
to their specific programs although the extent of this discussion and the
emphasis placed on it varied considerably. In this regard, UBC, UCLA, and
Oregon were the most emphatic and comprehensive in their discussions. Seven
of the schools clearly discuss planning as a value sensitive profession
overall (Calgary, UCLA, Manitoba, Oregon, Queens, Toronto, TUNS and Washington).
Schools which made very little reference to values and attitudes were Cornell,
Harvard, Maryland, McGill, Waterloo and York.
Of the five categories of values and attitudes looked at, references to
equity, social justice, economic welfare, efficient use of resources and
to conservation of natural resources were by far the most common, being
referred to by almost all of the schools in some way.
Although the Planning Accreditation Board combines conservation of natural
resources and cultural heritage as one area, only six of the schools made
any reference to the conservation of cultural heritage. Those that did were
UBC, UCLA, Chapel Hill, Cornell, Montreal and Washington.
Very little was said on the role of government and citizen participation
in a democratic society and the balancing of individual and collective rights
and interests. Many schools referred to the importance of understanding
the political process or context in planning, but refrained from any specific
discussion of democracy, public participation and individual versus collective
rights. UBC and Queens came the closest to covering these issues. None of
the schools discussed democracy per se.
Less than half of the schools discuss professional ethics in some way and
only three of the schools make reference to the relationship to clients
and the public and the role of citizens in democratic participation in their
discussions. These schools were UBC, Queens, Washington.
UBC was the only school which covered each of the five categories of values
and attitudes comprehensively. UCLA, Manitoba, Queens, and Washington discussed
values and attitudes which related to four of the five areas. Harvard, Laval,
and Montreal made reference to three (to varying degrees). The remainder
of the schools discussed two or less of the values and attitudes which the
Planning Accreditation Board cites as important to planning as a value sensitive
profession.
Applied Planning Practice
Virtually all of the schools (fifteen) involve outside professionals in
lectures, events and student work.
All of the schools offer studio or workshop courses although some are structured
more as real planning consultancies with students working in teams for actual
clients (McGill, Queens, Oregon, Maryland, Chapel Hill) than others.
Fourteen of the schools (including UBC) offer an internship.
UBC and Calgary were the only programs that offer mentorship programs.
Overall, UBC stands out from the other schools as the only program which
offers opportunities for students to gain exposure to applied planning practice
in each of the four categories. Nonetheless, a number of the schools have
unique programs or initiatives which may be of interest to UBC. These include:
Chapel Hills Planners Forum; Manitobas Partners Program; Marylands Technical
Advisory Committee; TUNSs special planning module; and, Waterloos Planner
in Residence Program.
All of the schools made some reference to special programs (centres or institutes
associated with the school) or links with planning agencies, institutions
or organizations outside of their programs; however, a number of schools
appear to be particularly well connected (often with jointly appointed faculty),
offering their students unique opportunities for research or field work,
and for making contacts with outside agencies. These include: UBC, UCLA,
Chapel Hill, Cornell, Harvard, Manitoba, McGill, Oregon, Toronto, TUNS,
Waterloo, and York.
Toronto, Chapel Hill, and Harvard all publish well recognized journals featuring
student work.